Introduction

The Kempo art with which I have had the most experience is Karate. Central to distinguishing traditional Karate from the other Kempo arts is todome waza, or finishing blow. In fact this concept is considered so pivotal to Karate, that traditional students and sensei of Karate do not consider a kicking and punching martial art without finishing blow as Karate. Simply this, without strong kime upon impact, finishing blow is unlikely; without finishing blow, there is no Karate.

Some of the most popular styles of Karate are Wado-Ryu, Shito-Ryu, Goju-Ryu, and Shotokan. However, there are hundreds of more schools whose main premise derives from one or more of these four schools of Karate. In addition there are lesser known schools that are still practiced in Okinawa with only a small following in the outside world. In Okinawa three major styles of Karate evolved before the twentieth century; these were called Naha‑te, Tomari‑te, and Shuri‑te, each name reflecting the geographical locale from which each particular method originated. These three methods were described and labeled in the 1920’s; however, some scholars argue that such a delineation of styles is inaccurate because most who studied Karate at the time would freely borrow from the other styles.

Effective Karate emphasizes punching techniques to the upper body and head along with kicks and sweeps to the legs and lower body. Karate styles can be categorized as soft and hard styles. The soft styles are characterized by circular and elliptical movements and evasive tactics; techniques are designed to utilize the attacker's energy against himself. Wado‑Ryu, founded by Ohtsuka Hakuei, and Isshin-Ryu, founded by Shinikichi Shimabakuro, might reasonably fall into this category. More linear movement characterizes hard styles such as Kyokushin-Kai, Oyama Masutasu, and Shotokan. Goju-Ryu seems to blend elements of both hard and soft. In general though there are four main styles of Karate: Wado-Ryu, Shito-Ryu, Goju-Ryu, and Shotokan.

In the US, those schools are associated with the following Karate pioneers of the 50's and 60's: for Wado-Ryu, Ajari Yoshiaki and Cecil Patterson; for Shito-Ryu, Demura Fumio; for Shotokan, Oshima Tsutomu, Okazaki Teruyuki, and Nishiyama Hidetake; and for Goju-Ryu, Anthony Mirakian, Yamaguchi Gosei, and Peter Urban.

A legitimate Karate school will articulate the following priorities for the student:

Techniques should be effective and practical for self-defense purposes. It should help the student develop technique powerful enough that she can create enormous and indiscriminate shock to an opponent's anatomy or discrete strikes directed at specific anatomical targets.

Techniques and training should be useful for developing fitness and conditioning and for understanding strategy and timing.

Training should provide a philosophical, psychological, and spiritual understanding. That is, it should empower the individual; it should result in the individual developing a mind that is undisturbed in a crisis and demonstrates determination and resolve when confronted with an aggressor.

Along with Tae-Kwon-Do and Judo, many Karate organizations in the US have also begun to emphasize sport competition, recreation, and physical fitness training over street practicality. Sugiyama (1992) refers to such Karate schools as sport karate and does not recommend them to individuals seeking to learn how to fight or wishing to study a true Budo for self-development.

The emphasis on sport raises questions about the overall effectiveness of Karate. Conversely, some organizations have retained and continued to emphasize the development of the art's fighting practicality. Such schools are referred to as either Primitive Traditional or Contemporary Traditional (Sugiyama 1992). A prospective student should be careful when making his or her decision to enroll in a Karate school in order to be sure that he/she signs up with a school that emphasizes practical street defense. This is an important point since many schools and instructors are interested primarily in the sporting aspects of the martial arts such as tournaments and demonstrations.

In terms of requirements for muscular strength, Karate-do may be ideal for women and individuals of small stature or size because strength is not a prerequisite, rather quickness and agility are (Fetto 1994) along with faster reaction time (Sugiyama 1981) and intelligence. Even though many Karate schools do not emphasize strong muscular development for effective self-defense, any reputable school of Karate will stress the concept of todome waza. Such training helps the student to create the mindset and synchronize the body in order to make a single technique so powerful that it injures or damages the attacker to such an extent that he desists. Such focusing of power is called Kime, and it is at the core of Karate.

In fact, while many of the schools that don’t emphasize Kime have resorted to adding Judo, Jujitsu, or wrestling technique to their curriculum in order to compensate for the inability to create a finishing technique; traditional schools do not need to concern themselves with this. In fact, many of the schools of weak sport variety often justify the added encumbrance by claiming that 90% of all fights go to the ground in a grappling match based upon the chain of events that happens in mixed martial arts competitions. The percentage offered comes from mix-martial art competitions, which are not the reality sports that promoters want the viewing public to believe. Many martial art schools, reflecting the attitude conveyed in the glossy-paged pop-culture publications which overstate and hype up any phenomenon that may aid in generating income.

Goju-Ryu

Based upon one of the main styles of Okinawa Karate, Naha te, Goju-Ryu may be identified as one of the purest schools of Karate. Through Higaonna Sensei, it has a more recent connection to the wellspring of all Kempo arts, China & its Gung Fu. While schools of Karate, such as JKA and Wado, were heavily influenced by Japanese martial arts, Kendo and Jujitsu respectively, it may be accurate to say such a strong influence from Japanese Budo is less prevalent in Goju.

Goju-Ryu, one of the four main styles of Karate, has a much more recent connection to China, the well-spring of Okinawan Karate, than the other three schools: Wado, Shito, and Shotokan. Contemporary Goju-Ryu owes much to two men who were teacher and student: Higaonna Kanryo and Miyagi Chogun. The name Goju-Ryu and its founding was the responsibility of Miyagi Chogun, who studied under Higaonna Kanryo Sensei (1853-1916); however, Higaonna Sensei created the concepts upon which much of Goju is based (Goju-Kai…USA 2002; IOGKF2002). Higaonna began his study of Karate under a famous teacher, Aragaki Seisho. Later, much like Uechi Kanbun (the founder of Uechi-Ryu), Higaonna studied Chinese fighting methods (Cook A Precise History… 2001). Even though some contend that he went to China for the expressed purpose of studying Chinese martial arts (McCarthy 1995), others argue that he went in an attempt to avoid conscription into the Japanese national army (Goju-Kai…USA). Goju-Kai Karate-Do USA (2001) contends that Higaonna spent only three years in China; however, McCarthy (1995) and Cook (2001) indicate more than ten years; Kim (1974) indicates somewhere between seven and eighteen years; still another indicates that he spent sixteen years of study in Foochow, China (IOGKF 2002). Be that as it may, Higaonna Sensei, who originally studied Karate in Okinawa, spent his time in the study of various Kung-fu methods from the Fuzhou area in China.

From his background, he combined elements of the methods he studied with one being the core. However, Miyagi Chogun has stated that "…the only detail that we can be sure of is that ‘a style’ from Fuzhou…served as the basis from which Goju-Ryu karate kempo unfolded (qtd. in McCarthy 1995). If such is the case, Chinese Kung-fu would be at the core of Goju-Ryu methods. Nonetheless, when Higaonna Sensei returned from China to Okinawa, he began to teach Karate. His reputation spread both as a teacher and as a Karate expert. Locals referred to his art as Naha-te (IOGKF 2002). In 1916 Higaonna passed away. His student of thirteen years, Miyagi Chogun, continued to teach his art and even further develop it by creating new kata (IOGKF 2002). However, Miyagi Sensei would be responsible to introducing it to Japan and later the world. In 1921 he performed Goju-Ryu kata before crown prince Hirohito in a famous demonstration in which other important Karate men of the time performed such as Funakoshi, Gichin. This performance was important for Karate in general and Goju in specific because if brought the Okinawan martial arts to the attention of others outside of Okinawa.

Goju literally means "half hard-half soft." Goju-Ryu Karate may be classified into two groups, Goju-Ryu (Okinawan) and Goju-Kai (Japanese). Similar to many Kung-fu systems, Goju stylists emphasize lateral movement, in-close fighting, strong breathing, strong stances, and elliptical or circular blocking and punching (Sugiyama 1992 Kitoh). Many traditional schools of Goju-Ryu do not condone nor participate in tournament competitions. Many regard competition as something that detracts from the rigidly traditional characteristics of Goju-Ryu. Body conditioning is an important component of Goju students. Participants tend to use weights and various other devices to build muscular strength.

Shito-Ryu

Mabuni Kenwa, who was the student of both Itosu Sensei and Higaonna Sensei, created the style of Karate most widely practiced in Western Japan, Shito-Ryu. The fact that Mabuni Sensei studied under both men is reflected in the name Shito, whose Chinese characters indicate the names of Itosu and Higaonna. Mabuni

Sensei, born in 1889 and a contemporary of Funakoshi Gichin and Motobu Choki, began the study of Karate around the age of 13 under Itosu Sensei; later he trained under Higaonna Sensei; and still later he trained under other notable Okinawan Karate sensei.

In 1929, he moved to Osaka, Japan where he began to teach Karate, much as Funakoshi had begun teaching in the Tokyo area earlier in the decade. When he began teaching his own students, he kept the two different styles he learned separate. That is according to "Shito-Ryu International…" he taught his students Shuri-te (Itosu) and Naha-te (Higaonna) methods separate one from another. By the time he died in 1952, he had created his distinct system when he combined the kata and curriculum from both methods into a comprehensive, synthesized style.

Many similarities between Shito-Ryu and Shotokan exist because both Funakoshi Sensei and Mabuni Sensei studied under Itosu Sensei. Both styles use many of the same Kata but with variations in Bunkai or the application (Sugiyama 1992, Kitoh). Another distinction between the two schools stems from the fact that Shito-Ryu has an extensive Kata curriculum, over sixty; however, Shotokan has only 25 or 26 in its curriculum.

At one time the relationship between Shotokan students and Shito-Ryu were much tighter than they are now. In fact, Nakayama Masatoshi states that, with Funakoshi Sensei’s approval and recommendation he sought out Mabuni Sensei and learned and studied Kata. "When we visited Master Mabuni, Master Funakoshi told me to learn Gojushiho and Nijushiho, so we could study them more carefully. So Kenwa Mabuni taught me these kata" (quoted in Cook, 2001 A Precise History). Similarly, Otsuka Hakuei sought out Mabuni Sensei for a time (Otsuka 2001, Wado-Ryu Karate: The History of Wado-Ryu, Chap. 3 2001). Such interaction would suggest that Mabuni Sensei not only inspired his own school, he also contributed to other schools of Karate.

Since his death, many Shito-Ryu sub-groups or factions have sprang up from Mabuni’s students. We may assume that these groups reflect the personal perspectives these students hold and reflect the time at which they trained under Mabuni Sensei and his particular stage of development both as a teacher and as a Karate-ka. The Shito-Kai is the organization developed by Mabuni Sensei’s two sons: Kenei and Kenzo. Other schools with unique interpretations of Shito-Ryu include Seishin-Kai, Itosu-Kai, Kempo-Kai and Shuko-Kai.

Wado-Ryu

Among the first to seek out the venerable Funakoshi Gichin when he arrived in Tokyo, Ohtsuka Hironori, is counted as one of the first generation of Karate-ka in the main island. Sugiyama Sensei has indicated that had the rancor between Ohtsuka and Yoshitaka not existed or had it been subverted long enough, Ohtsuka, as Funakoshi Sensei’s senior student, would have been the head of Japanese Karate after the early death of Yoshitaka and the eventual death of Funakoshi Sensei. If such were the case, it is reasonable to speculate that three main groups Shoto-Kai, JKA, and Wado would not have likely evolved. Rather, all three would have developed as a single unified style with Ohtsuka as the head until his death in 1982.

Ohtsuka Hakuei founded the Wado system of Karate. When he began to study Karate under Funakoshi Sensei, many already regarded Ohtsuka San as a highly accomplished teacher of Yohsin-Ryu Jujitsu; in fact, he had been designated the head of that method. He is reputed to have trained under Funakoshi Sensei for nine years, and he was among the first group of individuals to be awarded the black-belt in Karate (Cook 2001, A Precise History; Wado-Ryu Karate: The History of Wado-Ryu 2001). However, according to Kazutaka Otsuka (2001), the grandson, Ohtsuka trained with Funakoshi Sensei from the years of 1922 to 1926, only four years, a considerably briefer time frame, which would make one wonder about the true depth of his knowledge of Karate. In fact, one may accuse Wado-Ryu as a watered-down version of Shotokan considering the brief time in which Ohtsuka studied; whether it be the nine years or four years, one can regard either length as superficial.

Be that as it may, as a result of disagreements within Funakoshi Sensei’s circle, Ohtsuka went out on his own. Reportedly, the disagreements stemmed from differing ideas regarding technique; accordingly, Ohtsuka and Yoshitake Sensei (Funakoshi Sensei’s son) disagreed and failed to find resolution to the conflict, leaving Ohtsuka on the outside politically; in fact, the conflict stemmed from his incorporation of jujitsu into his Karate instruction (Wado-Ryu Karate: The History of Wado-Ryu, Chap. 3 2001).

If we are to believe this story of conflict stemming from technical disagreements and since he was at odds with Yoshitaka Sensei, it makes sense that, out of spite or out of a genuine spirit to remain true to his vision of Karate, Ohtsuka left. When Ohtsuka parted with Funakoshi Sensei, he is reputed to have traveled to Osaka, where he for a time studied under Motubu Choki (Goodin 2001; Otsuka 2001; Wado-Ryu Karate: The History of Wado-Ryu, Chap. 3 2001) and Mabuni Kenwa (Otsuka 2001; Wado-Ryu Karate: The History of Wado-Ryu, Chap. 3 2001).

Another version of the cause of the break between Funakoshi Sensei’s group and Ohtsuka exists. According to Sugiyama Sensei (2000) and Otsuka (2001), the difficulty centered on money. Funakoshi’s son, Giei accused Otsuka, who was the treasurer for their Karate group, of having stolen money earmarked for constructing the Shotokan dojo. This second version is more believable because it is corroborated by Ohtsuka’s grandson who is writing on his father’s (Ohtsuka Hakuei’s son) behalf. As it was, Ohtsuka found himself in a situation where he was forced to recruit students who already trained Karate and was compelled to form his own group. Eventually, Otsuka listed his school with the Budokukai (Sugiyama 1992; Cook 2001 A Precise History of Shotokan; Patterson 1976, Wado-Ryu Karate: The History of Wado-Ryu, Chap. 3 2001; Otsuka 2001). It is interesting to note that when he first went public with his school, he cited his Jujitsu Sensei as the founder and not Funakoshi.

Ohtsuka incorporated theories from his school of jujitsu into his Karate. Because of the influence of Yoshin Ryu, Wado-Ryu relies heavily upon dodging and evasion to avoid attacks (Sugiyama 1992). In fact, when compared to Shotokan or Goju-Ryu, Wado appears to be quite "soft." The theory of pliability characteristic of Wado technique owes its origin to the Yoshin school of Jujitsu, which values softness and flexibility as a method of meeting an attack. While I may admire such as a theoretical concept, as a skeptic and a former San Dan in the Wado system, I failed to be impressed by any physical manifestation or employment of the "soft approach." Because of the great influence of Yoshin Ryu, it may be more accurate to describe Wado as a method of Jujitsu striking rather than as a system of Karate. In fact, in March of 2003, Nishiyama, Hidetake in the course of a conversation indicated to me that he at one time invited Ohtsuka as a guest instructor to his dojo. He indicated that Ohtsuka’s method relied heavily upon Kawashi, or evasion; that such a tactic was effective when evading a weapon; but it was not particularly practical when avoiding an empty hand attack. Nonetheless, because of its heavy reliance upon Yoshin Ryu for the foundational core, Wado-Ryu may more accurately be considered jujitsu. Especially since Kime is considered to be at the core of traditional Karate and since Wado-Ryu curriculum places no emphasis upon Kime, then to describe Wado-Ryu as a method of Jujitsu striking may be apt.

Regardless of the merits of his martial art or the accuracy of the label to describe it, Otsuka had a remarkable reputation as a martial artist and quite effectively applied the principles of Yoshin Ryu in his Karate; to what extent his reputation is honest perception or the product of the exaggeration that often surrounds strong personalities in Karate, we can’t truly ever know. One story about his prowess goes thus:

One day, when Otsuka was teaching at the Shichi-Tokudo, a student, Kogura, from Keio University who had a san-dan degree…in kendo (Japanese fencing) and also a black belt in karate, took a sword and faced Otsuka. All other students watched to see what would happen. They felt that no one could face the shinken (open blade) held by a kendo expert. Otsuka calmly watched Kogura and the moment he made a move with his sword, Otsuka swept him off his feet. As this was unrehearsed, it attested to the skill of Otsuka (Kim1974).

Since the death of Ohtsuka in 1982, Wado has fragmented into at least three large groups: Wado-Ki-Kai, headed by Suzuki Tatsuo; Wado-Ryu, headed by his son, Ohtsuka Hironori II; and Wado-Kai, headed by a group of senior students who refused to acknowledge the leadership of the previous two.

While there are those students of Wado-Ryu who insist that Ohtsuka improved and refined Karate and that their style is the only true "Japanese Karate" because Ohtsuka Sensei blended Japanese jujitsu with Okinawan Karate, such claims must be outright dismissed as misleading. First, unlike Shotokan, for instance, Wado-Ryu has continued to keep the Okinawan terms; in other words, Wado-Ryu has retained common Okinawan names for kata such as Pinan instead of Heian, Seisan instead of Hangetsu, and Chinte instead of Gankaku. Second, many of the stances, techniques, and kata have changed little from the time in which Ohtsuka Sensei learned them from Funakoshi Sensei. They are still the same ones taught by Funakoshi Sensei when he taught Karate to the first generation of Karate-ka in Japan, among whom was Otsuka Hironori (Kase & Herraiz 1990). While students of Wado-Ryu may or may not learn jujitsu style of techniques, the core of their Karate still retains many close external similarities to Okinawan Karate minus Kime.

Furthermore, Ohtsuka modified Karate techniques and curriculum according to his own ability to perform them. For instance, one would note that in Shotokan, Yoko Keagi is performed in many Kata and is often practiced as a basic technique. Yoko Keagi has been substituted for Mea Geri in the Wado-Ryu versions of those Katas that Wado-Ryu students still practice. The obvious question one must ask is "Why?" According to Nishiyama Sensei the reason Ohtsuka eliminated Yoko Keagi from the curriculum was practical for his own personal reasons: In short, Ohtsuka expunged all side snap kicks because he was unable to perform them effectively because of the late age at which he started Karate and his lack of flexibility. Hence, all Wado-Ryu purists do not perform this kick because of Ohtsuka’s personal tick.

A phenomenon among students of traditional martial arts is a tendency to rigidly cling to the traditional form of things. That is, the avoidance of changing things even for the sake of improvement. Students of Wado have this narrow-minded trait in common with those who practice other styles. Ohtusuka’s disciples tend to rigidly hold to the techniques and principles of Karate as taught by Otsuka. In order to hold true to what they regard as his vision of Karate, they avoid making changes for the sake of efficiency or effectiveness and would even argue that what Otsuka devised can’t be improved upon. A frequent argument perpetuated by Wado enthusiasts is that Wado exists as a superior system over other styles or Karate, specifically Shotokan.

If, in its early inception, Wado was progressive, nothing would indicate that this spirit of progressiveness exists any longer. A true spirit of investigation and modification is thereby stifled by the pervasive attitude of inherent superiority. In short, when the disciples of a particular school refuse to apply science or logic to modify and improve the system, then that system solidifies and becomes a fossil. If such is the case, most if not all Wado systems may be identified as Traditional Karate; however, because most have solidified in their approach and avoid using Ohtsuka’s innovative approach to evolving and improving Karate, it would be safe to say that Wado is not a Contemporary Traditional Karate.

Shotokan

Shotokan is the style of Karate introduced by the venerable Funakoshi Gichin into the main Islands of Japan in the early twentieth century. The term Shotokan typically refers to two main schools that evolved from Funakoshi Sensei’s students: Shoto Kai, founded by his more senior disciples; and Japan Karate Association (JKA), founded by the more junior students.

The man, widely considered the father of Japanese Karate, Funakoshi Gichin was born in 1868. Funakoshi Gichin taught one method of Karate: a synthesis of the various Okinawan methods of his time. His method became know as Shotokan—Shoto being his pen name, which meant pine waves, and kan being the name given to a training hall. Since then Shotokan has become the nickname for the style of Karate taught by the Nippon Karate Kyo Kai or the Japan Karate Association; however, it may equally apply to Shoto-kai, the association founded by Funakoshi Gichin’s more senior students.

While he may not have been the first to introduce Karate beyond Okinawa, Funakoshi’s status as the father of Karate-do hinges upon four modifications or changes that he instigated. The first was his blending of Okinawan Karate into a unified, systematized method of training (While such blending and borrowing were not uncommon among Karate-ka in Okinawa, Funakoshi took the methods of his various instructors and organized them into a rigid format for ranking based upon Kano Jigoro’s successes at systematizing various Jujitsu methods into Judo), the second was the changing of the name of Karate from Chinese hand to Empty hand, the third was his introduction of Karate outside of Okinawa to the world via Japan, his forth consists of his efforts to append social, moral, and philosophical principles to Karate.

By his own accounts, Funakoshi Gichin was a sickly child, who his parents had little hope would survive long. At the age of 11, he began to study Karate under Azato Yasutsune. He claims that he did so to improve his health, and after a few short years he was no longer the "frail child." He began his study of Karate under Azato Yasutsune, and later he also studied under Itosu Yasutsune, in fact a majority of the original Shotokan kata that Funakoshi Sensei taught can be traced back to Itosu.

In Okinawa three major styles of Karate evolved before the twentieth century; these were called Naha‑te, Tomari‑te, and Shuri‑te, each name reflecting the geographical locale from which each particular method originated. These three methods were described and labeled in the 1920’s; however, some scholars argue that such a delineation of styles is inaccurate because most who studied Karate at the time would freely borrow from the other styles. We know that Funakoshi Gichin continued this tradition of borrowing and blending. It is his synthesis of Karate and its subsequent interpretation and modification by his students that has become the most widely practiced style of Karate outside of Japan.

Morality and social obligation based upon Confucian ethics became a cornerstone of Funakoshi Sensei’s Karate. Funakoshi Gichin, being born into an upper class family, received education in the Confucian classics; furthermore, his Karate teacher, Azato Sensei, who often discussed the Confucian Classics with his pupil, reinforced his Confucian education. Funakoshi Gichin is reputed to have further infused Okinawan Karate with many concepts from Confucian philosophy and Zen Bud­dhism. According to Sugiyama Shojiro, chief instructor for the JKA Chicago, Funakoshi Gichin is credited with changing Karate from mere fighting techniques to a martial art with a moral and spiritual base. Harry Cook, in his book Shotokan: A Precise History (2001) claims that Funakoshi Gichin felt the importance of moral teaching particularly pressing considering the violent social upheaval in Japan in the years after the Satsuma Rebellion and the Meiji Restoration.

Around 1901-02, Funakoshi Gichin along with his sensei Itosu and others gave a demonstration at an Okinawan school. Itosu is accredited with devising and/or modifying the five Pinan katas (Heian in Japanese) so that these katas could be taught in the Okinawan schools (Swift 2001, Cook 2001 A Precise History). In 1921 Funakoshi sensei among other martial art teachers gave a demonstration of Karate to the crown prince at Shuri castle. Funakoshi Gichin, already in his fif­ties and at a point where most men consider retirement, found himself selected by the Okinawan Martial Art Society to demonstrate Karate in Japan. In 1922 Funakoshi gave a demonstration of Karate in Tokyo and a national athletic exhibition. Soon, Funakoshi Sensei received requests to demonstrate Karate for other clubs and associations.

In the early twenties, Funakoshi Sensei opened his first dojo at the Meisei Juku building. Other styles of Karate such as Goju‑ryu and Shito‑ryu were introduced into the Japanese main islands in the 1920's. In fact, Motobu Choki, Funakoshi Sensei’s great nemesis, who had moved to Osaka in 1921, also opened his own dojo in Japan in the 1920’s. In 1924, Funakoshi Gichin along with his students established the first university Karate club at Kieo University in Tokyo. In 1926 the Tokyo (Todai) University club was established. From there, other clubs were established. In 1936, Funakoshi opened his own dojo, which he had built –the "Shotokan." By the beginning of WWII, Karate was well established in Japan.

Even though the word Karate, when it is spoken can mean either T’ang hand or empty hand, Funakoshi Gichin changed the written characters from T'ang hand to empty hand. This act provided three benefits: first, it removed the "taint" of Karate being a foreign martial art and more closely aligned it as a Japanese Budo; second, it more accurately reflected the attitude of Zen, which Funakoshi Sensei sought to incorporate into Karate; third, it reflected that Karate was an unarmed martial art. In the era of intense nationalism characteristic of the pre-war and war years of Japan, undoubtedly, Funakoshi Sensei, prudently decided to change the character (name) of Karate. Originally, in Okinawa, Karate was called Tode or T'ang hand (T'ang is the word by which Chinese refer to themselves; it derives from the T'ang dynasty which is considered the golden age of Chinese civilization), or sometimes it simply was called Te (hand in Okinawa). Next, empty hand more accurately expresses the essence of Karate. When one practices Karate he or she should have a Zen-like state of mind; appropriate Karate training emphasizes emptiness as espoused in Zen Buddhism. Secondly, Karate is the most basic of all martial arts; it teaches fighting with the natural weapons with which a human is born--the empty hand.

In the 1930’s Funakoshi Sensei also began to increasingly use Japanese terms rather than Okinawan or Chinese terms to describe the various components of Karate. For instance the name for the Pinan Katas (Okinawan) were changed to Heian (Japanese). Kushanku, Wanshu, and Chinto were changed to Kanku, Empi, and Gankaku. Funakoshi Sensei and his son Yoshitaka continued to teach Karate even through the war years. Toward the end of the war, Yoshitaka, the heir apparent, died from tuberculosis. After the war in 1949, Funakoshi Sensei’s students gathered together to form the Japan Karate Association. However, many of the more senior students refused to join with the JKA and subsequently organized their own group. While Funakoshi was alive he witnessed the creation of the JKA. He died on April 28,1957.

The JKA Group

The JKA school was strongly influenced by Kendo, Japanese fencing. Nakayama Sensei and Nishiyama Sensei both had extensive years of study in Kendo before they undertook the study of Karate. They added their knowledge of shifting and timing, as it pertained to Kendo, to Karate, hence, providing their dynamic and explosive Karate technique with a swift and effective, linear shifting for delivery.

Internationally, JKA, which is most often referred to as Shotokan, is perhaps the most widely practiced style of Karate; however, it may also be the most fractured and splintered in terms of organization. I would speculated that the cause for this disorganized condition may stem from the fact that unlike the other school founders who had a strong senior student or a son on to whom to pass the leadership, the Shotokan schools did not have this singularly strong personage.

This phenomenon has been both a blessing and a curse. We may argue that the blessing of this condition may have resulted in a more methodical inquiry into making Karate effective because no one personality could fully impose his will or method without some form of challenge. Therefore, any method was open to challenge, and what was proven to not work was discarded or modified. In those styles directed by strong personalities, no one dare challenge the leadership’s methodology or organizational policy; therefore, when questionable techniques were part of the curriculum, tradition was the argument for the retention of ineffectual technique. However, the disadvantage of an association of more-or-less equals is that when personalities have conflict and arrive at an impasse, they may be more likely to break from each other. This may explain the phenomenon of the splintered condition of the JKA today.

As a student at Takushoku University, Nakayama Masatoshi Sensei began his study of Karate. According to Sugiyama, Nakayama Sensei inadvertently stumbled upon Karate training when he had intended to arrive for Kendo training. Having observed the Karate, he decided to take up its study.

One cannot understand the evolution of the JKA without knowing Nakayama Masatoshi Sensei’s contributions; already accomplished in Kendo, he began training in 1932. In an informal conversation, Sugiyama Sensei indicated that when the JKA organized by Funakoshi’s junior students, Nakayama Sensei was selected as the technical director for the JKA based primarily upon the fact that he had neither professional nor familial demands upon his time and would find it possible to devote more time to instructing and developing Karate. However, many more senior students resented this fact; therefore, they broke with the rest and form their own organization, which was called the Shoto-Kai.

Under the leadership of Nakayama Sensei, Karate began to go through some further changes. Today, we remember Funakoshi sensei for synthesizing the Karate schools of Okinawa into a more holistic system and for integrating Zen philosophy and Confucian ethics into his Karate. We should also remember Nakayama Masatoshi for introducing important elements from Kendo (Japanese fencing) into Karate. Under Nakayama Sensei, modifications were made to the JKA approach to Shotokan in which techniques rely less on blocking and muscle strength and more on understanding distance and timing for de­fense and attack; hence, a marked characteristic of JKA Shotokan is the use of strategy of shifting and timing to avoid and attack an opponent.

© Copyright by Borden Plunkett